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Electronic Music Interfaces © Portions copyright March 1998 by Joseph A. Paradiso Electronic Music Interfaces MIT Media Laboratory 20 Ames St. E15-325 Cambridge MA 02139 USA 1) Introduction The desire for musical expression runs deeply across human cultures; although styles vary considerably, music is often thought of as a universal language. It is tempting to surmise that one of the earliest applications of human toolmaking, after hunting, shelter, defense, and general survival, was probably to create expressive sound, developing into what we know and love as music. As toolmaking evolved into technology over the last centuries, inventors and musicians have been driven to apply new concepts and ideas into improving musical instruments or creating entirely new means of controlling and generating musical sounds.
The classic acoustic instruments, such as the strings, horns, woodwinds, and percussion of the modern orchestra (and sitars, kotos etc. Of the non-western world) have been with us for centuries, thus have settled into what many think of being a near-optimal design, only slowly yielding to gradual change and improvements. For hundreds of years, the detailed construction of prized acoustic instruments, especially in the string family, has remained a mysterious art, and only recently have their structural, acoustic, and material properties been understood in enough detail for new contenders to emerge, for example in the instruments of. Electronic music, in contrast, has no such legacy. The field has only existed for under a century, giving electronic instruments far less time to mature. Even more significantly, technology is developing so quickly that new sound synthesis methods and capabilities rapidly displace those of only a few years before. The design of appropriate interfaces is therefore in a continual state of revolution, always driven by new methods of sound generation that enable (and occasionally require) expression and control over new degrees of freedom.
This is especially relevant now, as synthesis techniques such as physical modeling move into prominence. As its name implies, physical modeling synthesis runs a mathematical model of an actual acoustic instrument or complicated, imaginary, 'pseudo-acoustic' system on a computer or DSP. Since most acoustic instruments have multimodal, expressive interfaces very different from the piano keyboards common to commercial synthesizers, a different, perhaps more multimodal and general interface is required for a performer to attain the full potential promised by modeling synthesis. Throughout most of the history of electronic music, the interaction end of instrument design could be classed loosely as a branch of ergonomics. Over the last 15 years, electronic instruments became digital, and within the next decade or so, their functions will probably be totally absorbed into what general purpose computers will become. Thus, for all practical purposes, musical interface research has merged with the broader field of human-computer interface. This merger has two basic frontiers; at one end, there are interfaces for virtuoso performers, who practice and become adept at the details of manipulating subtle nuances of sound from a particular instrument.
At the other end, the power of the computer can be exploited to map basic gesture into complex sound generation, allowing even non musicians to conduct, initiate and to some extent control a dense musical stream. While the former efforts will push the application of noninvasive, precision sensing technologies in very demanding real-time user interfaces, the latter relies more on pattern recognition, algorithmic composition, and artificial intelligence. Interposing a computer in the loop between physical action and musical response allows essentially any imaginable sonic response to a given set of actions; this is termed 'mapping'.
As digital musical interfaces are so recent, there is no clear set of rules that govern appropriate mappings, although (arguably) some sense of causality should be maintained in order that performers perceive a level of deterministic feedback to their gesture. Likewise, there is considerable debate surrounding the groundrules of a digital performance. For example, when a violinist plays their instrument, the audience has a reasonable idea of what they'll be hearing in response, but with any possible sonic event resulting from any gesture on an unfamiliar digital interface, the performing artist risks loosing his audience. It's not entirely trivial for modern composers working in this genre to maintain the excitement inherent in watching a trained musician push their instrument to the edge of their capability; in most venues, audiences will expect avenues through which they can feel the performer's tension and sweat, so to speak.
Although, as indicated above, musical mapping is an important component of all modern musical interfaces (and many interesting software packages have been developed for this purpose; i.e., developed by Miller Puckette, developed by Mark Coniglio and Morton Subotnick, from STEIM, the by Roger Dannenberg, from Cesium Sound, and here at the MIT Media Lab), the remainder of this article will focus more on sensing and hardware, tracing the history of electronic musical interfaces, and describing examples and research that illustrate these concepts. 2) Reign of the Keyboard With the notable exception of the Theremin, to be discussed below, all early electronic musical instruments were primarily controlled by a keyboard, frequently the standard 12-tone (chromatic) layout we know from the acoustic piano. The first true electronic instruments were Elisha Gray's 1876 Musical Telegraph (an array of tuned electronic buzzers activated by switches on a musical keyboard) and English physicist William Duddel's 1899 Singing Arc, which used a keyboard to control an audio modulation frequency imposed over a 300 v potential driving a carbon arc lamp that directly produced musical tones. In 1906, Thaddeus Cahill's 200-ton Telharmonium generated musical audio from a building full of tuned dynamo wheels; one per note, and as his instrument presaged vacuum tube amplification, the dynamos themselves each needed to generate the circa 10 kW required to drive the transducers of thousands of listeners who subscribed over telephone lines.
The Telharmonium was controlled from a multiple-keyboard console designed to accommodate two players. Cahill's keyboard was actually touch-sensitive (a feature lacking in most of its descendants in the electronic organ world); as each key was connected to a mechanism that adjusted the alignment of two coils in a coupling transformer, the amplitude of the signal was a function of the key depression.
There were also switches and pedals to control the timbre and dynamics. Since there was one wheel per note, the Telharmonium was a polyphonic instrument, as were those of its electric tonewheel progeny that were commercialized circa three decades later, such as the Rangertone and Hammond organs. In contrast, most of the early vacuum tube instruments were monophonic; the few exceptions, such as Hugo Gernsback's Pianorad (1926) and the Coupleaux-Givelet Organ (1938) required a huge bank of bulky tube oscillators (one per note), which were notorious for drifting out of tune. The 'Ondes Martenot', introduced by Maurice Martenot in 1928, was the first electronic keyboard to be produced in any quantity, and as several notable composers of the time scored for it, it is still used in concert today. Early versions controlled monophonic pitch exclusively through a taut ribbon loop that was attached to a ring fitting on the forefinger of a performer's right hand and also wound around the shaft of a variable capacitor (much like the string in the tuning dials of old radios). As the player translated this hand up and down a dummy keyboard (included for visual/tactile reference only), the ribbon loop was likewise rotated and the capacitor turned, changing the frequency of the heterodyned audio oscillator, thus determining the instrument's pitch.
As the oscillator or pitch mechanics drifted, the player would compensate by ear, adjusting the position of the ribbon finger appropriately. The left hand keyed the audio on and off, and controlled a set of stops that switched components in and out to control the timbre and characteristics of the amplitude envelope. Martenot successively refined his instrument, eventually producing a device with a real keyboard that triggered a note and determined its pitch. The ribbon remained, but was used for portamento and vibrato effects; the left hand was now devoted to articulating timbre and dynamics changes. This left/right hand articulation/note arrangement has persevered, and is still present in most modern-day keyboard synthesizers.